The Australian Library Journal
volume 50 issue 1

'Open relationships, de-facto marriages, or shotgun weddings?': the convergence and integration of libraries and computing/information technology services within Australian universities

A complex change management process is currently underway in many Australian universities. It involves the convergence and/or integration of library, computing and IT services. The process has profound implications for reference and information services and their clients, as evidenced by the recent increase in library literature both for and against integration. This paper identifies the issues driving convergence in universities, and the challenges this represents, investigates the impacts of full integration on university libraries and their clients, and recommends strategies for the successful management of convergence and integration involving established reference and information services teams.

Manuscript received May 2000

This is a refereed article

Integrated library, computing and information technology services are now a fact-of-life within at least a dozen Australian universities (CAUL, 1997, p 1). Responses to surveys conducted for the Council of Australian University Librarians in 1995 and 1997 suggest more are likely to follow before 2001, with the overall trend clearly moving towards the administrative and structural alignment of these services within Australian universities. Evidence of alignment is most apparent to clients in the integration or merging of reference, information technology and computing support desk services. Although it is still too early to evaluate the success or otherwise of these processes in terms of learning outcomes, more mergers are anticipated given changing client expectations, emerging and evolving technologies, and the ongoing pressures on senior university managers to rationalise resources and services. With several service-point mergers now documented in the Australian library literature, it is arguably time to review progress to date, and relate local experiences to those of countries with established cultures of convergence and integration.

What are the common challenges being faced in the integration of previously separate services, and what are the lessons being learned by managers, frontline staff, and their organisations as a whole? As Neil McLean noted in 1997, despite there existing a large body of work on the convergence of library and computing services in the United States and United Kingdom since 1984, there has been scant attention paid to 'the impact on service delivery and even less analysis of customer reactions.' (p 5). With integration still only a relatively new trend in this country, it would seem timely for others directly involved in the processes of change to join McLean in documenting and sharing their experiences with those just embarking on the process.

It is the purpose of this paper to review work on the impacts of convergence and integration on reference services within university libraries, with particular attention to the Australian experiences to 1999. The objectives are as follow:

• to define what is meant by convergence and integration of libraries, computing and IT services within universities;
  
  
• to identify the issues driving convergence and integration of information services in Australian universities;
  
  
• to explore the challenges of integrating information services in Australian universities;
  
  
• to investigate the impacts of convergence and integration on reference services; and,
  
  
• to recommend strategies for the successful management of convergence and integration involving established reference teams.

On converging paths
Patricia Battin (1984), Pat Molholt (1985) and Allen B Veaner (1985) were among the first, and most influential, American librarians to recognise the gradual moving together of library and computing services over a decade ago. Both Battin and Molholt couched their observations in terms of the growing information economy, with Molholt emphasising the 'economic value as well as societal impact' of information (1985, p 284). Battin spoke of the need to fashion 'a new information infrastructure to provide the electronic scholar with the same kind of universal gateway across to recorded knowledge as the traditional library provided for printed materials.' (1984, p 3) Both acknowledged computing and information technology services as information providers in their own right, thereby finally putting the lie to a long cherished belief by academic librarians that they alone provided for the information needs of their organisations. This theme is now considered a matter of fact and has directly, and indirectly, sponsored many integration processes.

Battin was also one of the first librarians on record to identify administrative integration of library and computing services as a way of aligning a university's information provision with the needs of its clientele; that is, students. She described her vision as 'one-stop shopping for the University community' (1984, p 17) and eventually saw this become reality at Columbia University, in New York City. The critical point of both Battin and Molholt's writings was that they saw the way ahead very much in terms of integration: taking the best of each existing system and creating something new - an 'integrated information support system' (Molholt, p 288).

Not unexpectedly perhaps, librarians or their colleagues in computing did not greet this somewhat radical and challenging view with universal acclaim. Richard Dougherty best expressed the prevailing counter attitude in 1987:

While I fully subscribe to Raymond Neff's thesis that the functions of libraries and computing centers are converging, I don't conclude that organizational mergers are likely or even inevitable in the short term. (p 290)

Dougherty and others argued that libraries and computing/IT services would and should continue to have clearly distinguishable identities well into the future, and suggested that clients would be best served by 'carefully constructed programs of collaboration' (p 289). And thus began a decade of semantic imprecision! What was actually meant by collaboration? Did it imply an open relationship whereby each party agreed to align with the other on certain issues, but reserved the right to act independently as the political mood dictated? Or did it mean a de-facto marriage of sorts - a merger in everything but name? Writers like Dougherty were preoccupied with the idea that one of the two converging parties would become subservient to the other, and that libraries would be the victims of any hostile takeovers.

As the debate matured in the early 1990s, however, others began to recognise the truth in Battin and Molholt's original observations that libraries and computing/IT services have complementary strengths and weaknesses, and face almost exactly the same challenges. (Kong, p 14; Hirshon, p 8) In fact, some went so far as to suggest that 'strategic alliances' involving 'meaningful collaborative efforts' were 'no longer a measure of last resort but vital to institutional survival.' (Hirshon, p 8) In their argument for collaborative reengineering between libraries and computing services, Shapiro & Long (1994) cautioned:

As librarians, we are not alone in our quest for survival in an unknown and highly volatile future. Our colleagues in academic and administrative computing also are concerned with identifying their strategic advantage. (p 285)

According to Shapiro & Long:

The time for library-computer center turf wars is over. We need each other if we are to survive. Our skills are complementary and our operations are, of necessity, symbiotic. (p 287)

By the mid-1990s, several Australians had also acknowledged that the rapid growth and increasing complexity of information technologies, coupled with greater client expectations and the blurring of traditional professional boundaries made 'management of interdependence critical' (O'Brien, p 38). Linda O'Brien (1993) described the challenge facing both libraries and computing/IT services as 'achieving concurrence of effort along multiple dimensions of the organisation'. (p 38) In a refreshing view from 'the other side', also authored in 1993, Alex Reid spoke of the need to recognise 'our mutual dependency'. (p 42) Speaking to both librarians and computing professionals he also added another dimension to the imperatives identified by others:

We're increasingly addressing the same issues, and there is an opportunity for a great synergy to occur if we get our acts together. I'm not just talking about the respective domains of libraries and computing centres, but we must include all the other bodies within universities that deal with information acquisition and presentation, including media services, the telephone system, the printery, educational technology support, and so on. All the units that deal with information are dealing more with the same matters, the same academics, and the same technologies. We can only do an effective job for our institutions if we collaborate more. (p 42)

Reid goes on to observe that the most common means of achieving collaboration is to appoint, or promote, one person to a new position with overall responsibility for information services: a catch-all phrase identified as the common descriptor for executive bailiwicks since the mid-1990s (CAUL, 1995, p 1). O'Brien also identifies strong leadership as the mechanism by which 'different cultures, priorities and strategies' can be brought together 'to achieve a truly shared set of goals for the delivery of information services.' (p 38)

The identification of imposed management as the catalyst for change initially appears at odds with the literature of self-evident convergence. However, the lingering doubts and suspicions expressed by senior librarians like MIT's Shirley K Baker (1990) suggest that a more objective and visionary approach is required to see that the information needs of clients are best met. Reid (1993) makes the point that many situations where one person, either a librarian or a computing professional, has been placed in charge of both services have proved less than successful. (p 42) He contends that 'the best results have been obtained where there has been a mutual agreement by each of the parties to cooperate, where, indeed, there has been a shared sense of urgency about the need to do so.' (p 43)

To return to our initial question about what is meant by collaboration, the literature suggests that writers over the past decade have treated the terms convergence, collaboration and cooperation synonymously, with subtle nuances of meaning evident in selected cases. Together, these terms have been used to describe a variety of open relationships whereby libraries and computing/IT services have formed alliances to meet certain challenges. (Baker, p 249) As Hirshon (1995) notes:

In some cases informal collaboration results in formal changes to the reporting relationships or organizational structures, while in other cases the library and computing organizations simply agree to cooperate. In either case, increased collaboration between the libraries and computing operations will be essential to meet the information needs of the university constituencies. (p 9)

McLean (1997) offers a recent Australian perspective on collaboration versus integration. Writing of the convergence of library and computing services at Macquarie University in Sydney, he observes:

The structural model adopted for the newly formed Division of Information Services in 1996 was a collaborative model rather than a highly integrated model. In practice, this means that each service has clearly defined core business and service objectives. (p 7)

A joint approach, however, was deemed necessary for areas such as IT customer support and training, Web management, and student computing facilities.

Since the mid-1980s, the commonly expressed goal, or expected outcome, of convergence between libraries and computing/IT services has always been the integration of services to 'provide access to the wide range of available information resources, printed and electronic, local and remote, in a seamless way.' (Upton & Pinfield, 1998, p 351) This was the original thrust of Molholt's thesis: the creation of an integrated information support infrastructure. (1985, p 288) In the last five years the literature has begun to define what might be viewed as the next iteration of integration: the Information Commons. In a representative paper published this year (1999), Donald Beagle from the University of North Carolina describes the Information Commons at that institution as 'a shared venture with staff from the Library, the University Teaching Center, and the Center for Computing and Information Technology.' (p 86) Beagle notes the two levels on which an Information Commons can be defined. Firstly, as a virtual construct typified by a wide selection of electronic information resources made accessible to users via a single graphical user interface, operating on a common system (most probably Microsoft NT) and searchable using one search engine. Extrapolating to the physical, the Information Commons is also defined as a 'facility specifically designed to organise workspace and service delivery around the integrated digital environment' (Beagle, p 82. In essence, the Information Commons may be seen as a direct product of the paradigm shift to which information professionals were first alerted in the mid-1980s. It is the physical, and virtual, expression of what Beagle calls 'an organizational realignment from print to the digital environment.' (p 82)

To have and to hold from this day forward
Over the last decade, the literature of library management has gradually come to acknowledge the existence of a 'continuum between the traditional and the virtual library' (Upton & Pinfield, p 351). This so-called 'Hybrid Library' makes available to users the best of both information worlds: traditional paper-based resources, and a representative portion of each successive generation of electronic information resources. The sizeable challenge facing these libraries, according to Ian Upton and Stephen Pinfield (1998), is one of integration, and the consequent provision of information to clients in a seamless manner. (p 351) They go on to observe that most, if not all, academic libraries are now hybridised to some degree, and that the virtual (digital) library is likely to augment, not replace, the conventional library well into the future. (p 351) While this may be good news for many librarians and their clients, it poses an enormous challenge for university libraries. Arnold Hirshon cautions against 'unimaginative thinking' whereby clients are shielded from changes in systems and services: 'we may be making life easy for them (or ourselves) now, but we rarely are helping them in the long-run.' (1995, p 7) As Edward Lim, University Librarian at Monash University noted in 1998:

In a nutshell, the basic problem confronting university libraries is that in an era of fiscal uncertainty and instability they are forced to fund with diminished resources what are essentially parallel libraries, one based on print and the other on electronic or digital resources, each with its own distinctive and expensive cost structure. (p 1)

Lim's comments echo the findings of an overview of library annual reports conducted several years before. In their report for the March 1995 issue of Australian Academic & Research Libraries (AARL), Jensen & Guha commented:

Two major factors appeared to drive Australian academic libraries in 1993, namely, financial stringencies and technological developments in the provision and access to information ... In general it seems all libraries were expected to provide an ever-growing range of services with less funds and with fewer staff. (pp 54-55)

But to examine the effects of increasing technology and declining budgets on libraries alone is to ignore the profound effects the same issues are having on both computing/IT services, and the universities that are increasingly viewing libraries and computing centres as components of a common information infrastructure. In his address to the 1992 conference, Confronting the Future: University Libraries in the Next Decade, the then Vice-Chancellor of the University of Wollongong, Professor Ken McKinnon, summarised the issues facing universities as these:

• continuing attempts by federal government to achieve maximum benefit for each dollar of tax money given to universities;
  
  
• competition with the technical education sector for federal funding;
  
  
• increasing competition between institutions to attract students especially those who fund their education from non-government sources;
  
  
• greater emphasis on issues related to quality including performance indicators and competency in prescribed skills;
  
  
• use of a variety of computer and communication technologies to permit off-campus delivery of a range of learning resources and facilities;
  
  
• the need for institutions to maintain high levels of investment in the provision of information and the technology infrastructure needed to make it available. (p 41)

Brian Cook from Griffith University further encapsulated the challenges by identifying the need to provide quality tertiary programs in 'an environment characterised by mass education, research pressures, increased accountability and declining real fiscal support.' (1995, p 2) Cook goes on to postulate that one obvious strategy is to consider 'the advantages to be gained from merging current [information] providers.' (p 2) In that same year, a CAUL survey indicated that of the 30 Australian university libraries that replied, eleven were part of a larger administrative unit, and nine of these eleven units included both the library and the computer centre. Importantly, in six cases the heads of the library and the computer centre reported to the same person, typically a Pro-Vice-Chancellor. (CAUL, 1995, p 1) Two years later, eighteen libraries were part of a larger unit, twelve of the units encompassed the library and the computer centre, and fifteen reported to the same executive position. (CAUL, 1997, pp1-4)

It is not unexpected, or arguably ill-advised, in a period of sustained economic rationalisation for university administrators to take cues from the business world and look for synergies within their organisations. To quote the London-based Information Consultant, Maurice B Line:

Universities are deliberately and very visibly competing with one another for the best students, the best researchers and the best teachers. Good information services can give them a competitive advantage ... Whatever competitive advantage there is will be in the quality of the service rather than in its nature. (1998, p 224) [italics added by author]

Increasingly, the literature has cautioned that libraries and librarians are losing their status as 'sole providers' of information. (Line, 1994; Wainwright, 1992) As Reid (1993) explains, new information suppliers and access technologies have expanded the range of options available to information seekers. (p 40) The pervasive nature of the World Wide Web has also led to a global Information Commons wherein vast quantities of information of greatly varying quality can be piped directly to computers in workplaces, homes and even libraries! Eric Wainwright posed the obvious question in 1992: 'is the library then to be bypassed?' (p 142) The answer, at least in the foreseeable future, would seem to be no. However, there is ample evidence that universities and their clients are increasingly seeing both librarians and computing/IT professionals as 'enablers of information access' (Cook, p 11).

Without doubt, client expectations are also critical forces driving convergence and integration of information services in universities. Just as university, library and computing/IT budgets have largely remained static, or declined in real terms in recent decades, client expectations have increased demonstrably. The Learning and Information Centre at Southern Cross University provided a practical example of the growing influence of clients in 1995. John Neuhaus and Geoff Hill explained that 'from a remote user perspective, any separation of the two areas [Library and Computer Centre] is unnecessarily confusing.' (p 51) To overcome this problem, both areas agreed on a standard format for all training guides and based them on four core skills:

• Getting Connected (installing software, connecting to servers)
  
  
• Electronic Mail
  
  
• Information 1 - Internet based services (World Wide Web and News)
  
  
• Information 2 - Library catalogues and databases (p 52)

Although this example is largely reactive in approach, the literature of academic librarianship indicates a long-standing appreciation of clients' expectations. In building the case for her 'Information Support Center' Molholt demonstrated a clear understanding of the needs of her clients, viewed from arguably the most demanding perspective of all - her own!

... the information support system I envision is fast; it is indifferent to the location of information and to its form; it accesses a highly indexed and controlled body of information; and it is highly personalised. It serves as an information collection and manipulation system in support of my decision-making tasks. (p 286)

At a specific level, Molholt wanted a choice of virtual or personal contact to resolve problems, as the circumstances required, and contact with appropriate expertise, regardless of its origin. (p 285)

Baker also addresses the issue of client expectations, suggesting that computing and IT facilities are now viewed alongside, and sometimes above, library services as the lures needed to entice students (EFTSU's in current Australian parlance) and high quality researchers (grants). Crucial to Baker's vision of the 'ideal rich computing environment' (p 247) are five criteria, three of which serve to illustrate the demands of the whole. Firstly, desktop-computing resources must be available to all within (and without) the university. Next, there must be readily accessible 'sales, service, and software consultation' for personal and institutional information technology. And, finally, what Baker terms 'access to the library as a 'window on the workstation'" (p 247).

In recent years, some librarians appear to have comforted themselves with the notion that trends in information technology have also led to greater complexity in the way people access, use and manage information. In terms of the hybrid library, clients do obviously need a wider range of information literacy skills. (Upton & Pinfield, p 351) However, convergence of technology, for example the use of Web browsers like Netscape Communicator and MS Internet Explorer to access a range of information services, is progressively obviating the need for familiarity with multiple software interfaces. Instead, library clients of the late 1990s and beyond are requiring generic information literacy skills, and information services best summarised as 'flexible, innovative, seamless, integrated and client-oriented.' (Grgic, p 33) Ultimately, just as computing centres in the 1980s and early 1990s had to come to terms with the 'DIY age of computing' precipitated by personal computers, so too might libraries have to embrace the 'DIY age of information access' (Reid, p 41).

In addition to the external imperatives of converging and emerging information technologies, cost-effectiveness in tertiary education and growing client expectations, internal service issues have also caused some librarians to contemplate alignment with computing/IT services. Using Macquarie University Library as his case-study, but speaking broadly, McLean pointed to the 'relentless pressures [on libraries] to broaden their information technology service response' (1997, p 6). Library clients in need, he contended, did not distinguish between individual components of information technology (software, hardware, network, end-use-database) but did perceive librarians as being more helpful than their colleagues in computing services. In McLean's estimation, the solution meant 'harnessing the energies of a larger group of staff across the institution to provide a range of disparate expertise.' (p 6) This approach has now been employed at a number of Australian universities, most notably Griffith University in Brisbane (1996), the University of Ballarat (1997), and James Cook University in Townsville and Cairns (1997).

Of less direct concern to clients, but still an important factor in the quality of services provided, is the amount of unproductive time librarians feel they spend on manual tasks: filling paper trays in printers, restarting stalled software applications, and showing innumerable people how to Save As to a floppy disk. In his 1995 paper 'Reference Service Evolved', Leslie M Kong concedes 'a longing for a reference environment in which librarians are available to assist patrons with higher order, complex queries with minimal interruptions devoted to those tasks deemed to be less than professional.' (p 13) This feeling is expressed all too often at reference and information service points and begs the question: do we accept this as a necessary function of our work and upskill or re-skill staff accordingly? Or do we co-opt other talent as McLean suggests? In other library service contexts, notably interlibrary loans and document delivery, university libraries have willingly embraced library technicians. Perhaps the answer may be found in Laverna M Saunders' observation that 'libraries no longer have a monopoly on resources, and concurrently, Information Technology (IT) no longer controls the technology.' (1996, p 156)

Second thoughts
Despite the compelling forces driving alignment and integration of information services at the strategic level, the literature of the last decade shows us that operational success very much depends on how the vested interests overcome some fundamental challenges. Perhaps the best summary of the challenges faced by converging libraries and computing/IT services is provided by McLean (1997). He starts by citing the traditionally differing service cultures of library and computing staff. (p 5) This theme is echoed by Shapiro & Long (1994, p 290) and Saunders (1996). The latter highlights two salient cultural differences that have had to be resolved, or at least reconciled, in American universities. Firstly, computing centres have customarily charged clients for use of computing services and facilities. As Reid (1993) explains, this fee-for-service culture can be traced back to the early days of centralised computing, when mainframes were minor deities, programmers acted as acolytes, and those seeking answers sacrificed their research grants. Conversely, libraries have always philosophically favoured free access. And again, at a more practical level, Saunders suggests that computing staff have always traditionally focused on technology and tools, whereas libraries have been more service and user-oriented. (p 156) McLean develops this point in his second challenge: that 'traditional patterns of behaviour negate the evolution of new forms of collaborative action.' (p 5) In some libraries, for example, efforts to introduce telephone call centres staffed jointly by library and computing technicians have met dogged opposition from conservative librarians.

Just as calls for greater cost-effectiveness and efficiency can become catalysts for innovation and positive change, so too can shortsighted financial stringency impede new developments. (McLean, p 5) The development of Griffith University's integrated information desk service in 1996 stands out as an excellent example of strategic resourcing. As Kathy Grgic explained in a presentation to the 1997 PUBRAISS Conference in Brisbane:

A new Enquiry Services Team comprising five HEW 5 level appointments was recruited to work with Faculty Librarians in delivering the new service... It is important to understand that we had the opportunity to recruit a new group of staff for this exercise. We were able to restructure a range of existing casual and full-time positions, taken from both IT and Library, into five full-time positions. (p 34)

Griffith also funded expanded and integrated work-spaces for integrated staffs, and a purpose-built information desk, 'incorporating a reception service point, computing help desk and reference functions.' (Grgic, p 35)

Integration processes also face a number of challenges at the human level, and these are not to be dismissed lightly. Common staffing hurdles are outlined by Baker (1990), Shapiro & Long (1994), and Sharrow (1995). The latter cites difficulties setting priorities, defining areas of responsibility and authority, adequately recognising existing expertise and previous effort, and overcoming incompatible organisational cultures and personalities. These issues are to be ignored at the new organisation's peril as inappropriately managed human considerations have the potential to scuttle otherwise viable new services. Two case studies serve to illustrate the point. Shapiro & Long describe the aborted first attempt at creating a 'one-stop' information-cum-computing help desk in the Library at Rice University. Attempts to realise the new service point were abandoned in the first year when 'space considerations, staffing differences, and fear of having to learn a new discipline' combined with the widespread skepticism of computing specialists and reference librarians to inhibit useful change. (p 289) Although Grgic (1997) counsels agents of change against paralysis caused by 'thinking everyone needs to be 'on-board' in order to achieve success' (p 35), the dangers of acting without broad support are apparent. Dougherty (1987) borrows from the literature of business to suggest disaffected parties may seek a 'white knight' - in the guise of academic support - to rescue them from unwanted change. As he notes, unless both staff and clients are committed to the project underway, it is easy to play upon 'natural suspicions that some faculty harbor toward technology.' (p 291)

A more detailed study has been provided by Ruth Hafter and Lawrence Kittinger in their paper, 'A Library-Computer Center Microcomputer Lab: Developing Hybrid Standards of Service' (1990). Their account of a jointly managed computer laboratory located in the Library at San Jose State University illustrates the fundamental misunderstandings that can occur when different service cultures are aligned without adequate preparation. For example, each viewed the objective of the exercise differently. The Library foresaw an opportunity to enhance the use of other information resources and services. However, having just signed a sponsorship deal with Apple-Macintosh Corporation, the Computer Centre was more focused on redefining the traditional computer laboratory model.

After just twelve months of operation three key tensions had become clear. Firstly, resourcing the new service was proving costly to both the Library and the Computer Centre. Secondly, the Library was openly 'uncomfortable with the minimal level of service that the computer center instructed its student assistants to provide.' (p 251) What amounted to self-service in many cases did not accord with the Library's definition of client-service. On the other hand, the Computer Centre was 'incensed by what it felt was the insensitivity of the library staff to the legitimate [commercial] interests of the vendor.' (p 251) A thorough analysis after the first year of operation revealed four fundamental challenges facing the service: differing angles of vision, definitions of service, perspectives of the function of the service, and organisational cultures. In spite of all the difficulties, clients continued to use the service in staggering numbers and both the Library and the Computer Centre acknowledged the need to find solutions, for fear of losing something of clear benefit to the university. In time, open lines of communication enabled solutions to be found, and in Hafter and Kittinger's words, 'what has evolved is a hybrid facility offering a range of innovation and service not fully satisfying to either the library or computer center, but apparently providing an important resource for students and faculty.' (p 253)

A public commitment
The problems encountered and eventually resolved at San Jose State University serve to illustrate Soo Young Rieh's contention that 'reference service is the area where users most directly see the effects of technology.' (1999, p 178) It is also the area where they are most likely to experience convergence and integration of library and computing services first-hand. In recent years, a small number of Australian and overseas authors have begun to address the impacts of convergence and integration on reference staff, and the services they offer. From this modest body of work it is possible to identify effects in terms of extending the scope of the traditional Reference Desk to include a range of additional services, implementing referral models for Reference services, and developing core competencies for integrated library and computing/IT services. From these impacts it is also possible to distinguish specific strategies for the successful management of convergence and integration processes involving established Reference teams.

Shapiro & Long (1994) indicate that the effects of gradual convergence through collaboration are often subtle, and not overtly challenging to either staff or clients. At Rice University in the early 1990s they observed a noticeable, and highly positive, increase in the use of technology in Reference services; encouraged by new proximity to technical expertise, and participation in 'joint training and curriculum development activities' (p 287) with staff of the Computing Centre. The increasingly cooperative atmosphere fostered by mutual exploration of technology and shared client instruction programs also led to the dissolution of a prevailing 'us and them' mindset. (p 289) Hitherto disparate professional groups began to identify common interests and challenges, and develop an appreciation for each other's complementary skills and abilities. However, as any astute observer of politics knows well, dogma dies hard! Despite the satisfactory structural integration of core user services staffs from both the Library and the Computing Centre, plans to create a single service point located in the Library were scrapped in the first year. (p 289) Not the least of the difficulties encountered was the skepticism of both reference librarians and computing professionals about the operational effectiveness of a merged service point. University management effected a tactical withdrawal in the short term and staff efforts were redirected to less confronting collaborative projects as a way of building further trust and understanding.

Sometimes, integration processes are unable to afford participants the luxury of time to 'grow together', or an organisation already has in place a culture of change conducive to restructuring services from the ground up For example, in Australia, the very successful implementation of a single enquiry desk at Griffith University's Nathan Campus in 1996 grew out of an existing culture of amalgamation and integration. (Grgic, 1997) In practice, first creating an entirely new team of staff, the Enquiry Services Team, and introducing a two-tier service structure achieved the merging of separate reception, student computing help, and reference desks. As Grgic explained to colleagues at the 1997 PUBRAISS conference in Brisbane:

Technicians (HEW 4 and 5) handle the bulk of enquiries and the rostered hours on the desk, while professional librarians (HEW 5-7) undertake less hours on the desk, but are expected to do more of the advanced work with postgraduates and staff in relation to delivering information literacy programs, collection development, and liaison. (p 34)

Tiered service, referral or 'consultation' models are by no means new to Reference work, and librarians have debated their efficacy for several decades (Ewing & Hauptman, 1995; Hirshon, 1995; Kong, 1995; Stalker & Murfin, 1996; Chu, 1997). Many successful examples of tiered service have evolved in response to staff stringencies like an insufficient number of reference librarians to staff service points, or the much touted 51-59% average success rate of reference transactions. (Stalker & Murfin, p 423) Tiered or referral models aim to provide clients with a high quality 'triage service' whereby common directional questions ('Do you have copy of Brave New World?' or 'How do I print from this database?') are handled by paraprofessional staff and so-called 'real reference questions get referred to a reference librarian for in-depth consultation by appointment.' (Lipow, p 128) In the Griffith model and others (CAUL, 1997), referrals are also made to IT and computing specialists, with the ultimate goal being a seamless service that recognises information provision as its central mission.

One of the most radical impacts to date, as perceived by reference librarians, has been for university administrators to suggest or indeed implement a telephone call centre as part of an integrated service model. (Sayers, 1999) Almost nothing has been written on the topic of call centres from the library perspective, despite growing anecdotal evidence that they are being implemented, or considered seriously (McLean, 1997). Furthermore, the clamour for distance learning and 24-hour remote access to information services is only likely to hasten this trend. As Reid forewarned in 1993:

Libraries will need to handle increasing numbers of 'remote users', clients who may never enter the library building. Computer centres had to learn how to do this in the 1980%s (with timesharing computing), and it got worse in the 1980s (with micro/personal computing). We can help you deal with this challenge. (p 43)

One of the coping mechanisms for computer centres has to been to embrace computing support 'help lines', usually in tandem with e-mail help services. The service benefits of the latter have been self-evident to most Australian university libraries since the launch of AARNet a decade ago. However, the advantages presented by call centres have been less warmly embraced. In a recent article entitled 'Call Centres: enhancing service delivery or 'dark Satanic mills'?', Eileen Milner (1999) defines their appeal to the corporate sector. A call center:

• offers a controlled process for the consistent treatment of customers;
  
  
• delivers higher productivity of customer support staff;
  
  
• can improve the speed of response;
  
  
• suggests a more professional approach to customers; and,
  
  
• allows better use of scarce specialist staff. (p 39)

Set against these benefits to the organisation is the potential for dehumanisation of both services and staff - what Milner calls 'a production line feel about this way of working.' (p 39) This phenomenon is echoed in the literature of reference practice, where repetition and consequent boredom are also oft-cited explanations for the high percentage of questions answered incorrectly at traditional reference desks. Of arguably greater importance though, is the realisation that there are effective strategies available to help supervisors and staff overcome the shortcomings of both reference desk and call centre tedium. It remains to be seen, however, if reference services in Australian universities are flexible and innovative enough to identify the opportunities and challenges afforded by call centres.

Another potentially profound effect of integration on reference services is the need to re-examine the skills and aptitudes of both library and computing/IT staff, and develop a set of core library and IT competencies for both. In a paper to the 1995 RAISS conference, Colin Steele expressed concern about the 'current half-life for professional competency' (p 2), and many library educators have echoed his fears (Koenig, 1993; Kennedy & Mills, 1995; Reid, 1995).[1] Service point staff at both Griffith University and Macquarie University are required to possess 'a defined level of key competencies' (McLean, p 8). At Griffith, these competencies are explained broadly as 'a high level of computing literacy and client service orientation, in addition to library skills' (Grgic, p 34). Similarly, the Macquarie experience is predicated on the belief that the 'complexities of providing remote desktop support' necessitate 'a range of disparate expertise' (McLean, p 6). Consequently, the core competencies possessed by IT Support Desk staff at Macquarie include:

• an understanding of quality customer service;
  
  
• the ability to analyse clients' questions and identify appropriate needs;
  
  
• general and technical knowledge of the electronic information services available to clients;
  
  
• a sound working knowledge of Internet applications such as World Wide Web and e-mail;
  
  
• the capacity to apply library policies and procedures;
  
  
• the ability to advise on and troubleshoot remote access via modem connection; and,
  
  
• knowledge of Windows 3.11, 95, NT and Macintosh operating systems. (McLean, p 8)

McLean identifies the re-skilling and up-skilling of library staff as a 'fundamental goal' (p 8) of convergence and integration processes. This imperative acknowledges both the increasing complexity of information technology, and the ever-growing expectations of clients. It also challenges more traditional reference service paradigms - our comfortable habits (Hirshon, p 4) - and places even greater importance on the need for organisations to provide in-service training, and professionals to engage actively in self-development. (Steele, p 2) Outlining Griffith's three-month in-house training program, Grgic (1997) defined the objective as making all staff 'feel confident and empowered to respond to whatever new demands might be placed upon them.' (p 35)

A large number of other impacts on Reference services have yet to be explored in detail by the literature of convergence and integration. There is, for example, the issue of para- and non-library-professionals staffing service points - an evergreen topic in the standard reference literature. What are the demonstrated service implications for clients, and professional colleagues, of placing computer technicians on information desks? These issues and others relating to the practical integration of different service cultures - change management, performance evaluation and benchmarking, leadership, role definition and team working - remain to be investigated in the Australian context.

A stronger union - the benefits of marriage preparation
Having reviewed the literature available to date, what are the lessons to be learned about the successful management of convergence and integration processes involving established Reference teams? For a start, there must be a preliminary process of strategic planning. (Dougherty, 1987; Saunders, 1996) Preparatory planning is a cornerstone of all change management and should ideally encompass 'broad staff participation' (p 157). This is vital in order to achieve 'long term commitment to the breakdown of organizational barriers, empowerment of individuals, and shared vision, rather than protection of turf' (Line, 1996/97, p 57). Both Dougherty (1987) and Reid (1993) counsel some form of prior agreement between those areas and staffs to be integrated. Otherwise, there is always the very real risk of one or both sides perceiving a 'hostile takeover' (Dougherty, p 291). One practical strategy for encouraging participation and support is to facilitate regular interactions between converging staffs; that is, in the period leading up to and including integration. Grgic (1997) suggests formal and informal interactions designed to promote the sharing of skills, and design of future services. Dougherty (1987) proposes contrived working and social relationships that promote greater understanding of professional cultures and jargon. Additional benefits include newfound, or renewed, mutual understanding, respect and trust. (Shapiro & Long, 1994)

It is also important that the vision, mission and objectives of any new service unit accord with 'the broad institutional view of what must happen and work to move the whole institution, not just the library, forward.' (Lewis, p 12) In his 1987 'blueprint for collaboration', Dougherty concurs, prescribing changes 'that enhance the educational mission of our institutions' (p 291). Writing from an Australian viewpoint, and as a practitioner of integration management, Cook (1995) affirms both statements:

For the successful integration of the agencies that offer information services within higher education institutions, a clear vision of the purpose for wanting to achieve such a result is a first step. (p 13)

Integration processes at American universities like Columbia and Rice suggest that the promotion of an institutional vision initially requires strong overarching leadership (O'Brien, 1993; Shapiro & Long, 1994) O'Brien makes the following point:

Given the different cultures, priorities and strategies pursued by different campus units this will require strong leadership to achieve a truly shared set of goals for the delivery of information services. Many of the recent pro vice-chancellor appointments which bring together library, computing and audio-visual services are attempts to establish this leadership in order to foster the required concurrence of effort. (p 38)

At the operational level, new leadership blood can also have negative effects if the incumbent is identified too closely with one or other of the converging areas, or setting the pace of change beyond the tolerances of those involved. There is always a time and a place for 'phased implementation' (McLean, p 7) whereby the reactions of both staff and clients are assessed after each increment of change. Ultimately, the lesson for those managing integration processes is simple, regardless of the operational area or service orientation involved. Local factors will always consciously or unconsciously mould the final form. (p 5)

Another critical strategy is to ensure that the concept of the knowledge organisation is promoted within converging or integrating Reference and computing services. (Saunders, 1996) Crucial to this approach is the need to identify clearly what skills and competencies are required, and ensure adequate training for all involved. O'Brien (1993) echoes the sentiments of others when she suggests an emphasis on interpersonal, leadership and communication skills. There is also the suggestion that 'more generic position statements' (p 39) allow individuals greater opportunities for skill and role development, and career redirection. For many recent graduates of the new library and information science programs now working in Reference positions, the chance to crossover into computing/IT must surely prove very appealing. After all, as a 'new information professional' (Moore, p 24) each represents the very essence of convergence between library computing/IT services.

Finally, the most important strategy of all is to ensure a constant flow of meaningful communication - up, down and across each of the converging areas. (Sayers, 1999) Effective communication is a holistic strategy that thrives in an atmosphere of mutual understanding and respect. However, when these values are not evident between merging areas, communication can also be employed to build empathy and trust progressively. Maintained over a longer period of time, it helps to cement these values into the new organisational culture of the integrated service. Ultimately, it is communication that facilitates all of the other strategic responses required to manage change. As was so clearly demonstrated at San Jose State University in the late 1980s, truly effective communication usually requires hard work. It is, however, still the best mechanism available to bridge the gap between disparate organisational cultures, and deliver the quality outcomes for information users originally foreseen by Battin, Molholt, Dougherty and others over a decade ago. In this respect, convergence and integration processes are not unlike most other close human associations, be they open relationships, de-facto marriages, or shotgun weddings!

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